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United 93 (film)

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Not to be confused with Flight 93 (film) or I Missed Flight 93.

United 93
Theatrical release poster
Directed byPaul Greengrass
Screenplay byPaul Greengrass
Based on9/11 Commission Report
by the 9/11 Commission
Produced byPaul Greengrass
Tim Bevan
Eric Fellner
Lloyd Levin
StarringChristian Clemenson
Cheyenne Jackson
David Alan Basche
Peter Hermann
Daniel Sauli
Trish Gates
Corey Johnson
Richard Bekins
Michael J. Reynolds
Khalid Abdalla
CinematographyBarry Ackroyd
Edited byClare Douglas
Richard Pearson
Christopher Rouse
Music byJohn Powell
Production
companies
Distributed byUniversal Pictures
(international)
Mars Distribution (France)
Release date
  • April 28, 2006 (2006-04-28)
Running time
110 minutes[1]
CountriesUnited States
United Kingdom
France
LanguagesEnglish
Arabic (diegetic)
Budget$15 million[2]
Box office$76.3 million[2]

United 93 is a 2006 film written and directed by British filmmaker Paul Greengrass. The film largely chronicles the events aboard United Airlines Flight 93,[3] one of the four hijacked flights during the September 11 attacks on America. Flight 93 was the only plane to not hit its intended target due to the intervention of passengers and crew. The film also covers the experiences of government officials and air traffic controllers, many of whom are played by themselves, as they witness the other events of the attacks unfold that day.

The film recounts the hijacking and subsequent events during the flight with as much veracity as possible, including utilizing a real time perspective where the film takes place over the exact same amount of time as the real-life events beginning from the plane's takeoff. There is, however, a disclaimer that some imagination had to be used to tell the story. Overall, United 93 was made with the support and cooperation of most of the passengers' families, and many attended the premiere. There were, however, a few who did not support the film and did not participate in any of the film's activities. [4] [5] Many of the on-the-ground personnel, most notably Federal Aviation Administration head Ben Sliney, portray themselves.

United 93 premiered on April 26, 2006, at the Tribeca Film Festival in New York City,[6] and later opened in theaters nationwide in America on April 28, 2006. The film is regarded as one of the best of 2006. It was also a commercial success, grossing $76.3 million worldwide.[2][7] Ten percent of the gross income from the three-day opening weekend was promised toward a donation to create a memorial for the flight's victims.[8] The film received two Academy Award nominations, including Best Director for Greengrass.

Plot

[edit]

At sunrise on September 11, 2001, four al-Qaeda members, Ziad Jarrah, Saeed al-Ghamdi, Ahmed al-Nami, and Ahmed al-Haznawi pray in a Newark, New Jersey hotel, and drive to Newark International Airport to board United Airlines Flight 93, piloted by Captain Jason Dahl and First Officer LeRoy Homer Jr., bound for San Francisco. Among the passengers are Tom Burnett, Todd Beamer, Jeremy Glick, Richard Guadagno, Louis J. Nacke II and Lauren Grandcolas. During boarding, Jarrah makes a final phone call to his girlfriend, and Mark Bingham, rushing to the aisle, is the last passenger to board, barely making the flight. Air traffic controllers lose contact with American Airlines Flight 11 which diverts toward New York City while United 93 is delayed due to heavy air traffic. ATCs realize Flight 11 has been hijacked after hearing suspicious transmissions. United 93 is cleared for take off and passes New York with Jarrah observing the twin towers of the World Trade Center. Shortly after, Flight 11 crashes into the Trade Centre's North Tower, and United Airlines Flight 175 is also hijacked and heads toward New York. ATCs watch in horror as United 175 crashes into the South Tower. They learn that American Airlines Flight 77 has also been hijacked.

As United 93 reaches its cruising altitude, and the passengers are served breakfast, Jarrah hesitates to give the sign to start the hijacking. An ACARS message is sent from Homer's wife, asking if he is all right, followed by a warning of the WTC attacks and to beware cockpit intrusion. After Nami unsuccessfully urges Jarrah to attack, an impatient Haznawi prepares an artificial bomb in the lavatory. Ghamdi also loses his patience and grabs flight attendant Deborah Welsh at knifepoint as passenger Mark Rothenberg is mortally wounded by Haznawi. As Haznawi and Nami force the passengers to the back of the plane, Ghamdi kills both pilots and Welsh, but not in time to prevent them sending out a mayday call, as Jarrah takes the controls. Grandcolas (an emergency medical technician) tends to the dying Rothenberg as the hijackers jubilantly react to the text message indicating the success of the WTC attack. Nami berates Grandcolas and sends her back. Jarrah redirects the plane towards Washington, D.C., with the intention to crash the plane into the United States Capitol, as flight attendants Sandra Bradshaw and CeeCee Lyles find Rothenberg is dead. Bradshaw sees the hijackers moving the pilots and Welsh's bodies and the passengers overhear this.

Flight 77 crashes into the Pentagon, and FAA National Operations Manager Ben Sliney decides to shut down all U.S. air space and ground all flights. On United 93, passengers learn of the other attacks from family members via airphone. Realizing the hijackers are on a suicide mission, Burnett, Bingham, Beamer, Glick (a former judo champion), Guadagno, Nacke, Grandcolas, passengers William Cashman, Patrick Driscoll and Alan Beaven form a plan to retake the plane, with assistance from Bradshaw, Lyles and the flight staff, gathering weapons, and learn passenger Donald Greene is a licensed pilot and passenger Andrew Garcia is a former air traffic controller. As the group conspire, Haznawi and Nami anxiously realize they are losing control of the situation and Jarrah and Ghamdi get agitated, as they are twenty minutes away from D.C. and are unable to speed up. Passenger Christian Adams, attempting to counsel appeasement, is restrained by the passengers. The passengers pray and make final calls to loved ones.

After Beamer urges the group to take action, stating, "let's roll", the passengers charge a stunned Haznawi, and tackle him. As Nami, Ghamdi and Jarrah panic, Haznawi is killed by Bingham bludgeoning his head with a fire extinguisher with Nacke declaring the bomb a fake. Jarrah violently rocks the plane to disrupt the passenger revolt as Nami attempts to keep them at bay with a serving cart, Mace and a fire extinguisher, but the passengers persist and subdue Nami who is killed by Glick snapping his neck. Jarrah and Ghamdi are disheartened by the realization that they will never reach their target, as the passengers batter the cockpit door with the cart. Although Jarrah puts the aircraft into a steep dive, the passengers successfully breach the cockpit and overpower Ghamdi as he tries to protect Jarrah. As the passengers wrestle Jarrah for control, United 93 inverts and plummets into a field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, killing all aboard.

Epilogue captions state the aftermath of the crash, stating that military commanders weren't notified about the hijacking until after the crash. All civilian airliners over America were forced to land, and US airspace had been closed. The final captions dedicated the memory of those who lost their lives on September 11.

Cast

[edit]

Crew

[edit]
  • J. J. Johnson as Captain Jason Dahl
  • Gary Commock as First Officer LeRoy Homer Jr.
  • Polly Adams as Deborah Welsh
  • Trish Gates as Sandra Bradshaw
  • Opal Alladin as CeeCee Lyles
  • Nancy McDoniel as Lorraine G. Bay
  • Starla Benford as Wanda Anita Green

Hijackers

[edit]

Passengers

[edit]

Herndon, Virginia

[edit]
  • Ben Sliney as himself
  • Rich Sullivan as himself
  • Tony Smith as himself
  • Tobin Miller as himself
  • Michael Bofshever as John White

Eastern Air Defense Sector, (NEADS), Rome, New York

[edit]
  • Patrick St. Esprit as Major Kevin Nasypany
  • Gregg Henry as Colonel Robert Marr
  • Karen Kirkpatrick as Major Dawne Deskins
  • Major James Fox as himself
  • Staff Sergeant Shawna Fox as herself
  • First Lieutenant Jeremy Powell as himself

Ronkonkoma, New York

[edit]
  • Peter Pellicane as Paul Thumser
  • John E. Smith as Dave Bottiglia
  • Curt Applegate as himself

Boston, Massachusetts

[edit]
  • Scott Tourin as Peter Zalewski
  • Thomas Roberts as himself
  • John Moraitis as John Reilly

Cleveland, Ohio

[edit]
  • Daniel Fraser as John Werth
  • Morgan Deare as Tom Cloud

Newark, New Jersey

[edit]
  • Greg Callahan as himself
  • Rick Tepper as himself

Production

[edit]

The film was the first Hollywood feature to draw its narrative directly from the September 11 attacks of 2001. Passengers were portrayed in the film mostly by professional but relatively unknown actors. (Tom Burnett, for instance, is played by Christian Clemenson, who has since appeared on Boston Legal and CSI: Miami). Additionally, several participants in the real-life events portray themselves in the film, including Thomas Roberts, Tobin Miller, Rich Sullivan, Tony Smith, James Fox, Shawna Fox, Jeremy Powell, Curt Applegate, Greg Callahan, Rick Tepper, and notably FAA operations manager Ben Sliney. Sliney was initially involved in the film in an advisory role. He was then cast in a small role as an air traffic controller. Later, Greengrass offered him the opportunity to play himself, which he accepted.[9] The roles of one of the flight attendants, the two pilots, and many other airline personnel were filled by actual airline employees.[10]

During production, the actors playing the crew and the passengers of the flight were put in separate hotels from the actors portraying the hijackers and ate their meals separately, ostensibly to create an air of antagonism in the film between the two groups. The set itself was built so that it moved the way the actual flight did. During the filming, many of the actors actually got injured, and the blood visible on their faces during the revolt scene is authentic.[11] Finishing the very first take, Jamie Harding, who played al-Nami, became so overwhelmed that he was sobbing.[12]

Filming took place from October until December 2005, on a 20-year-old reclaimed Boeing 757 formerly operated by MyTravel Airways, at Pinewood Studios near London. The cockpit was built by Flightdeck Solutions.[13] The location was chosen both for its financial incentives and to shield actors from unwanted public scrutiny they might have received in the United States.[14] Action was filmed with handheld cameras, chosen for their versatility on the close-quarters sets and to create a sense of immediacy. Exterior airport sequences were shot on location at Newark Liberty International Airport, while interiors were shot back in England at London Stansted Airport. A few scenes were also shot in Washington, D.C. and Boston. Additionally, an opening sequence set in Afghanistan was shot in Morocco, but it was cut from the film before release.[15]

The film was released in the United States on April 28, 2006, and opened second in the weekend box office behind RV, but it netted a slightly higher per-screen average.[2]

Initial screenings ended with the closing credits line "America's War on Terror had begun". This was replaced in the release version with "Dedicated to the memory of all those who lost their lives on September 11, 2001".[16]

There were calls for Universal to pull the film's trailers from circulation in cinemas, due to some audience members feeling startled or upset by the film's subject matter.[17] The studio did not heed that call, although one theatre in Manhattan voluntarily pulled the trailer after audience complaints.[8]

The Iraqi-born, London-based actor Lewis Alsamari, who plays Ghamdi, was reportedly denied a visa by United States immigration authorities when he applied to visit New York City to attend the premiere, despite having already been granted asylum in the United Kingdom since the 1990s. The reason reported to have been given was that he had once been a conscripted member of the Iraqi Army — although this was also the grounds for his refugee status after his desertion in 1993.[18] Other sources say that he applied late for his visa and that it was not denied.[19]

Historical accuracy

[edit]
Main article: United Airlines Flight 93
Of the four aircraft hijacked on September 11, United Airlines Flight 93 was the only aircraft that did not reach its hijackers' intended target.

The timing of the events is changed for dramatic effect, with Jarrah making his final call to his girlfriend from the airport lounge, whereas he made it from his hotel room, and Mohamed Atta's “we have some planes” transmission being determined before Flight 11 crashed into the WTC; it actually happened after.[20] In an interview, Ben Sliney said that Greengrass exaggerated other details for dramatic effect, such as he and various controllers swearing and shouting when in his recollection most people spoke quietly.[21]

The film suggests the hijacking taking place 46 minutes after takeoff, was on hesitation on the part of Jarrah, to the dismay of his fellow hijackers. The hijackers' intended target is unknown, but the film depicts Jarrah taping a picture of the United States Capitol on the yoke.[22]

The cockpit voice recorder tape from United Flight 93 has never been made public; however, a transcript was made public after the film was completed, shedding more light on what actually happened in the final 30 minutes before the plane crashed. Some parts contradict the filmmakers' choices in terms of some dialogue and specific aspects of the event. For example, the pilots, Jason Dahl and LeRoy Homer Jr., are shown in the film being killed immediately during the hijacking. This was based on documentary evidence from the 9/11 Commission Report which indicates that at least one passenger reported in a cell phone call seeing two people, possibly the pilots, lying dead or injured on the floor outside the cockpit after the hijacking.[23] Though Dahl is shown sending out the mayday call, Melody Homer claimed to recognise her husband as the voice of the mayday hailer.[24][25][26] Due to the then forthcoming Zacarias Moussaoui trial, Jason Dahl's wife Sandy Dahl was unable to tell Greengrass what she believed really happened regarding her husband.[27][28] Some statements made by the terrorists in the cockpit voice recorder transcript,[29] as well as moans heard in the background inside the cockpit,[29] raised doubts that both pilots were dead before the plane crashed.[30]

There is some controversy between some of the family members of the passengers and the investigative officials as to whether the passengers managed to breach the cockpit before the plane crashed. The 9/11 Commission Report concluded that "the hijackers remained at the controls but must have judged that the passengers were only seconds from overcoming them". However, many of the passengers' family members, having heard the audio recordings, believe that the passengers did breach the cockpit[31] and struggled with the hijackers for control of the yoke.[32][33]

Portrayal of Christian Adams

[edit]

The film has been criticized for its portrayal of German passenger Christian Adams, who is portrayed as counseling appeasement, to the point the passengers restrain him when he tries to warn the hijackers, despite the absence of any evidence that he acted in this manner. It was also reported that Adams's widow did not cooperate with the filmmakers due to the emotional pain.[5] Sunday Times critic Cosmo Landesman mused, "Surely one of the passengers didn't phone home to point out that there was a cowardly German on board who wanted to give in?"[34] Critic John Harris suggested in a Guardian blog, "there will surely be all kinds of cries about old European surrender monkeys, the United States' contrasting backbone etc."[35][36] Erich Redman, who portrayed Adams in the film, has stated he did not intend to portray Adams as cowardly but as a man who "never made rash decisions and everything he did was always well-considered".[36]

Reception

[edit]

Critical response

[edit]

United 93 was one of the most critically acclaimed films of 2006. James Berardinelli, Roger Ebert, Michael Medved, and Peter Travers all awarded it full marks on their rating scales, with Ebert calling the film "masterful and heartbreaking" and saying that it "does honor to the memory of the victims".[37] Travers termed it "one of the most moving films of the year", in Rolling Stone. The film holds a 90% "Fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 212 reviews, and an average rating of 8.2/10, with the consensus: "Potent and sobering, United 93 treats the subject matter with respect, never resorting to Hollywood aggrandizement."[38] Calling it "gut-wrenching and surprisingly probative," The A.V. Club includes it on a list of "Great Films Too Painful To Watch Twice."[39]

The film has a score of 90 on Metacritic,[40] where it appears on 39 critics' top 10 lists, more than any other 2006 film on the site,[41] (although the 2006 film with the highest average score on the site is the re-released 1969 film Army of Shadows).[42][43] The film was ranked No. 1 on 47 lists (the most of any 2006 film).[44]

At the website Movie City News, which ranks 250 critics' lists and awards points for list-placement, United 93 ranks as the number one film of 2006[45][46][47] with a score of 917.5 points.

The film has been cited as a favorite by filmmaker John Waters, who presented it as his annual selection at the 2010 Maryland Film Festival.[48]

Alex von Tunzelmann of The Guardian gave the film a grade of C, saying: "United 93 is superbly made and authentic in feel, but the choices it makes about what happened on the plane – and who gets to be the heroes – are open to question."[49]

Top 10 lists

[edit]

Only two films (The Departed and The Queen) appeared on more top 10 lists of the best films of 2006 than United 93, and no film received more #1 mentions:[41]

Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal and Steven Rea of The Philadelphia Inquirer named it among the top ten best films of 2006.[41]

Accolades

[edit]

United 93 received numerous awards and nominations from film critics and guilds. Ultimately, the film received two Academy Award nominations, including Best Director, at the 79th Academy Awards, and six BAFTA Award nominations, including Best British Film, at the 60th British Academy Film Awards, winning two for Best Director and Best Film Editing.

Home media

[edit]

United 93 was released to DVD on September 5, 2006, in both widescreen and full screen. Also released was a 2-disc Special Limited Edition in widescreen. A Blu-ray Disc version was released on September 6, 2011.[52] A second Blu-ray release from Universal Studios for the film was released on June 5, 2012, as a part of Universal's Universal 100th Anniversary releases. This version included the same Blu-ray Disc (same transfer and same bonus features) found in the first 2011 release in addition to a DVD and digital copy included in the pack with a brand-new sleeve that was not available with the previous release.[53] Both Blu-ray Disc sets for the film are region-free.

See also

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References

[edit]
  1. ^ "UNITED 93 (15)". United International Pictures. British Board of Film Classification. May 11, 2006. Retrieved September 11, 2021.
  2. ^ a b c d "United 93 (2006)". Box Office Mojo. IMDb. July 6, 2006. Retrieved June 10, 2013.
  3. ^ Barra, Allen. "Historical Film: It's Time to See a Movie We Couldn't Bear to Go To"[permanent dead link]. American Heritage, November/December 2006.
  4. ^ Heath, Iver (January 1, 2006). "Four Years On, a Cabin's-Eye View of 9/11". New York Times.
  5. ^ a b Brooks, Xan (June 7, 2006). "United 93 'surrender monkey' defends role in film". The Guardian.
  6. ^ (March 29, 2006). "September 11 plane drama to open NY film festival"[permanent dead link]. Reuters article.
  7. ^ Boorstin, Julia (January 8, 2006). "MSNBC". NBC News. Archived from the original on October 2, 2013. Retrieved June 10, 2013.
  8. ^ a b Smith, Sean (April 9, 2006). "A Dark Day Revisited". Newsweek. Retrieved August 24, 2021.
  9. ^ Germain, David. (2006, April 29). FAA official plays self in ‘United 93’ Retrieved September 1, 2022, from https://www.spokesman.com/stories/2006/apr/29/faa-official-plays-self-in-united-93/?amp-content=amp
  10. ^ "Let's Roll! Inside the Making of United 93". Time. April 9, 2006. Archived from the original on June 2, 2021. Retrieved June 2, 2021.
  11. ^ Nancy Grace (April 28, 2006). "Families of 9/11 Victims Praise 'United 93'". transcripts.cnn.com. Retrieved June 21, 2021.
  12. ^ "United 93". The Times. May 21, 2006. Archived from the original on June 3, 2021. Its part of the most traumatic series of events in American history. So how do you make a film about 9/11s United 93 and keep it real, asks John-Paul Flintoff
  13. ^ "Flight Deck Solutions". Archived from the original on May 21, 2006. Retrieved May 21, 2006.
  14. ^ Burkeman, Oliver (April 28, 2006). "The Day They Hijacked America". The Guardian.
  15. ^ "Director's commentary". United 93 (Blu-ray ed.).
  16. ^ Lim, Dennis (April 18, 2006). "A Flight to Remember" Archived April 26, 2006, at the Wayback Machine. The Village Voice.
  17. ^ Waxman, Sharon (April 4, 2006). "Universal Will Not Pull United 93 Trailer, Despite Criticism". The New York Times. Retrieved March 17, 2014.
  18. ^ (April 21, 2006). "9/11 film actor refused visa for US premiere"[dead link]. The Times.
  19. ^ Judd, Terri (April 22, 2006). "America bars Iraqi immigrant who played hijacker in September 11 film" Archived September 25, 2015, at the Wayback Machine. The Independent on Sunday.
  20. ^ Prince, Stephen (2009). Firestorm: American Film in the Age of Terrorism. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-52008-9.page 110
  21. ^ King, Susan (April 24, 2006). "Tragic day, harrowing job". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved September 1, 2022.
  22. ^ CNN.com – Flight 93 hijacker: "Shall we finish it off?"
  23. ^ The 9/11 Commission Report Archived December 6, 2006, at the Wayback Machine, page 13, paragraph 2. Retrieved December 10, 2006.
  24. ^ "'I'm thinking about it all the time,' says Canadian wife of Flight 93 pilot". The Star. August 29, 2011. Retrieved September 7, 2019.
  25. ^ "United Flight 93 co-pilot's wife says crew wasn't passive". Skift. February 24, 2013. Retrieved September 7, 2019.
  26. ^ Mitchell, John N. (September 11, 2011). "Wife remembers pilot, who died in Flight 93". The Philadelphia Tribune. Retrieved September 7, 2019.
  27. ^ "United pilot's widow defends crew's role in 9/11 / Former flight attendant has been waiting 4 1/2 years to tell of Flight 93's final minutes". Sfgate.com. April 13, 2006. Retrieved June 11, 2021.
  28. ^ Gonzales, Manny (May 8, 2016). "Flight 93 tape: Horror, heroics". The Denver Post.
  29. ^ a b United Flight 93 Cockpit Voice Recorder Transcript Archived September 14, 2008, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved December 10, 2006.
  30. ^ Vulliamy, Ed (May 27, 2006). "For ONE moment it was possible to dream that the ending would be different' ...'". The Guardian.
  31. ^ "Families of Passengers Question Theory That Hijackers Crashed Flight 93". Foxnews.com. Associated Press. August 8, 2003. Archived from the original on July 4, 2013. Retrieved August 24, 2008.
  32. ^ Emanuel, Mike; Liza Porteus (April 13, 2006). "Flight 93 Hijacker: 'We Have a Bomb on Board'". Fox News. The Associated Press. Archived from the original on October 15, 2011. Retrieved September 10, 2011.
  33. ^ "Wives of Passengers on Flight 93". ABC News. September 18, 2001. Retrieved September 10, 2011.
  34. ^ "A terrifying flight back in time" June 04, 2006 The Times
  35. ^ Skating on thin air May 25, 2006 http://commentisfree.guardian.co.uk , accessed June 11, 2006
  36. ^ a b "United 93 actor defends portrayal". BBC.co.uk.
  37. ^ Ebert, Roger (April 27, 2006). "United 93 Review". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on June 25, 2013. Retrieved July 7, 2013.
  38. ^ "United 93". Rotten Tomatoes. Fandango. Retrieved October 5, 2021. Edit this at Wikidata
  39. ^ "Not Again: 24 Great Films Too Painful to Watch Twice". The A.V. Club. September 28, 2007.
  40. ^ "United 93". Metacritic.
  41. ^ a b c "2006 Film Critic Top Ten Lists". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Archived from the original on December 13, 2007. Retrieved January 8, 2008.
  42. ^ "Best Reviewed Film of 2006". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Archived from the original on July 22, 2010. Retrieved June 10, 2013.
  43. ^ http://www.avmaroc.com/videos/united+airlines-cLiPUfHP1_DIie0.html[permanent dead link]
  44. ^ "Best of 2006: CriticsTop10". CriticsTop10.com. December 29, 2010. Retrieved June 10, 2013.
  45. ^ "The 2006 Top Tens". Movie City News. Archived from the original on January 23, 2007. Retrieved September 3, 2013.
  46. ^ "2006 Overall Critics Choice Results Discussion". The Hot Button. Archived from the original on February 4, 2013. Retrieved June 10, 2013.
  47. ^ "The 2006 Top Tens". Movie City News. January 6, 2007. Archived from the original on January 27, 2007. Retrieved September 3, 2013.
  48. ^ Kaltenbach, Chris (May 7, 2010). "Maryland Film Festival: John Waters and 'United 93'". The Baltimore Sun. Retrieved August 24, 2021.
  49. ^ "United 93: the truth is out there". The Guardian. August 6, 2009. Retrieved June 5, 2012.
  50. ^ "United 93 Awards and Nominations". IMDb. Amazon.com. Retrieved February 19, 2015.
  51. ^ "The Awards Scoreboard". Movie City News. Archived from the original on January 22, 2007. Retrieved September 3, 2013.
  52. ^ "United 93 Blu-ray Announced and Detailed". High-Def Digest. Internet Brands, Inc. May 31, 2011. Retrieved June 10, 2013.
  53. ^ "United 93 Universal 100th Anniversary edition". Blu-ray.com. Retrieved October 11, 2014.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Greengrass, Paul (2006). United 93: The Shooting Script. Newmarket Shooting Script. New York: Newmarket Press. ISBN 978-1-55704-752-6.
[edit]
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